Part 3 Indian
Painting

In general, the painters' palette consisted of golden yellow, rich vermilion and crimson, lapiz lazuli and terreverte, lamp-black and white. Fourteenth century onwards, the use of gold and silver made the sacred Jain manuscripts acquire an extravagant character. This "opulent style" was indeed influenced by the contemporary illustrated Islamic manuscripts in the collection of nobles in Gujarat to which some of the painters had a rare access. A large number of professional artists were engaged in the art of the book besides a limited number of monks who did also excel as gifted illuminators hence the style of the painting spread over a larger context defying the sectarian limits. As a result, many of the Hindu texts and secular romances were illustrated in the similar style, invariably in a less-rigid manner and with a stress on the expressive use of colour. On the back of a Kalpasutra illustrated in the "opulent style" and datable to c.1475 do we find the representations of the "image form" of musical modes. These forty-two "image forms" of the ragas are the earliest surviving ragamala miniatures.

A fairly good number of illustrated manuscripts of Hindu and Islamic themes belong to the Sultanate era (14th – early 16th century C.E.). Some of these were executed at the court atelier of the provincial kingdoms whereas majority of the surviving specimens were produced for the less-exalted patrons. The patronage of aesthete-bibliophiles caused an intermingling of indigenous and Iranian pictorial idioms that eventually culminated in a series of painting styles, overtly symbolic and essentially non-naturalistic. In a phase of cultural osmosis Indian artists were quick to absorb elements from the style of migrant Iranian masters and this in turn helped them to enrich their narrative-inspired evocative visual metaphors. Spreading beyond the geographical limits of Gujarat and Rajasthan, the style found regional manifestation at Mandu and Gwalior (Central India), Agra, Palam, Jaunpur and Jai Singh Dev Nagar (near Kangra, Himachal Pradesh). There is a charming series of ragamala paintings (c.1525-70 CE) that belonging to this stylistic group. Further, the set was once lying in the collection of a Jain monk.

Two master painters, Ustad Mir Sayyid Ali of Tabrez and Ustad Abdus-Sammad of Shiraz, supervised the collective execution of the painters ensuring the quality production. These two masters were formerly in the court atelier of the Safavid ruler Shah Tahmasp II and migrated to India in response to the invitation extended by Akbar's father, Humayun. As was inevitable, there took place a synthesis of the lyrical Safavid idiom and intensely expressive pre-Mughal styles. From 1580 onwards, inflow of European engravings and painted tapestries opened a set of altogether different visual vocabulary. Painters were encouraged to imbibe certain traits of naturalistic representation namely, modelling and perspective. Unlike his father, Jahangir (r.1605-27) took less interest in manuscript illustration and directed his painters to produce sumptuous albums (muraqqa) of paintings and calligraphy. Chosen masterpieces were mounted on folios with superbly illuminated borders (hasiya). Emperor's discerning patronage made the art of painting reach unprecedented level of perfection. There were outstanding painters like Ustad Mansur, who specialized in intimate studies of florae and faunae. Elaborate court scenes were based on observations and the painters never missed portraying the court musicians whose sole function was to enliven the royal ceremonies with appropriate music. Meticulously stippled and patiently blended translucent tonalities were burnished carefully and the painted folios resembled exquisitely enamelled plaque.

Shahjahan (r.1628-58), the builder of Tajmahal, inherited a flourishing atelier of remarkably talented painters who specialized in commemorative portraits and formalized depiction of the splendour of imperial ceremonies. On the other hand, sensitive portrayals of holy men and sufi saints against a backdrop of enigmatic chiaroscuro are openings into the zone of introspection. For Aurangazeb (r.1658-1707), painters and musicians were "workers of the devil". Though there are some fine portraits of his early years, the production of albums and illuminated manuscripts had virtually ceased. His puritanical orthodoxy led him to close down the imperial atelier and discontinue the musical performances; as a consequence the artists were left with the option to explore fresh patronage in the principalities of Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh and Deccan. Paintings commissioned by the later Mughals (1707-1858) offer an enchanting range of subjects that included musical evenings and dance performances in the seraglio, spiritless court scenes and mannerized portraits.

Medieval Hindi literature revolving around the sringara theme was indeed a persistent source of inspiration; in particular, Rasikapriya and Kavipriya of poet Keshva Dasa and Satsai of Behari. Sringara poetry described numerous emotional states of heroes (nayakas) and heroines (nayikas). And, such typecasting prompted the painters to go ahead with the visualization of each romantic situation with remarkable insight. Other closely related theme was barahmasa that narrated the cyclical changes of season and their impact on the lovers' attitude. Ragamala sets were exccuted according to the iconographic pattern prescribed for each raga and ragini and, almost in every example the Sanskrit or Hindi ragamala text was written over the upper margin alongwith a label for the particular musical mode. This practice would confirm the patrons' personalized involvement with these miniature series that enabled them to have a complete experience of the melodic mode through literary and visual.

Simultaneously, the painters were also entrusted with the task of recording the memorable musical soirees held in durbar and women's apartment. In many such paintings do we notice the inscribed portraits of leading vocalists and accompanying artists. We do also get considerable idea regarding their status in the court while gleaning through some of these candid portraits. Several schools of painting in central India, especially those of Malwa and Datia, demonstrate a crisp brushwork and a certain earthy gusto relatable to the pre-Mughal tradition and early Mewar-Bundi examples. Rajput families ruled the region and may well have commissioned sets of ragamala, sacred texts like Bhagavata Purana and Ramayana, as also sringara literature like Amaru Sataka and Rasikapriya. Dynamic stylization and bold patterning counterbalance flat colour fields of contrasting hues, of black and warm red, yellow and ashy grey.